Inadequate Nahuatl Reference Grammar
D.K. Jordan

Notation Conventions

# = shows a word boundary when compulsory (e.g., a final i is shown as i#).

- = sign that shows where an affix attaches to another element. (e.g., a suffix may be shown as -lo.)

: = Two dots over a vowel (huän) show that it is long. (In standard orthography a macron is used.) Two dots on the front of a suffix (-:an) show that it lengthens the previous vowel.

< = what follows is a plural form. (E.g. pilli < R-tin means that the plural of pilli is pïpiltin. See below for meaning of R.)

> = what follows is a preterit (past) form. (E.g., päca > päc means that päca has the preterit form päc.)

<< = derived from

>> = produces, goes to, gives

C = consonant

DO = Direct object

IO = Indirect object

k = the sound k, whether spelt c or qu. (This is used here only when spelling will vary by context.)

kw = the sound kw, whether spelt cu or uc. (This is used here only when spelling will vary by context.)

Launey = Tags usage from Launey's Introduction à la Langue et à la Littérature Aztëques.

R = first syllable is reduplicated (and the vowel lengthened) in the plural. (Used only in abbreviating plural formations, e.g. pilli < R-tin means the plural of pilli is pïpiltin.)

s = the sound s, whether spelt z or c. (This is used here only when spelling will vary by context.)

V = vowel

V1, V2, V3, V4 = verb of class 1, 2, 3, or 4. (I have normally tried to indicate the transitivity of the verb, e.g. Vt2.)

Vb = verb

Vi = intransitive verb (usually followed by a class number: Vi3)

Vr = reflexive verb (sometimes followed by a class number: Vr3)

Vt = transitive verb (sometimes followed by a class number: Vt3)

Vtt = bitransitive verb (always takes two objects)

w = the sound w, whether spelt hu or uh. (This is used here only when spelling will vary by context.)

Aide-Mémoire to Verbal Subject & Object Affixes

Aide-Mémoire to Pronominal & Noun Affixes

Summary of Nahuatl Noun Morphology

• 0. Verbal subject prefix (only if the remainder is a predicate complement to the subject prefix)

  1 ni / ti (I/we)
  2. ti / an (you)
  3. — / — (he/she/it/they)
  The prefixed subject pronouns render the remainder of the compound a predicate nominative on an assumed present-tense linking verb. (Ti-toltecatl = "You are a Toltec.")

Possessed Nouns

• 1. Possessive pronoun prefix

  Specific Possessor (common):
  1 no / to (my/our)
  2 mo / amo or mo (your)
  3 ï or mo / ïm or mo (his/her/its/their)

  Non-Specific Possessor (uncommon):
  të (somebody's)
  tla (something's)
  ne (dummy possessor on reflexive verbs made into nouns [a relic pronoun])

• 2. Noun Stem (Sometimes involving some reduplicative plurals.)
• 3. Possessive suffix

  singular: V-uh or C-hui or -
  plural: huän

Unpossessed (Absolutive) Nouns

• 4. Noun Stem (Sometimes involving some replacive items.)
• 5.Absolutive suffix (incompatible with 1 and 3)

  singular: tli or lli or tl or in or —
  plural: tin or meh or h

Summary of Nahuatl Verb Morphology

• 0. Optative/Imperative Marker (separate word)

  mä = if, should it be that, let it be that
  tlä = if, should it be that, perhaps, let it be that (more polite than mä)
  mäca[mö] = if not; let it not be that (from mä + ahmo)
  tläca[mö]/tlë = if not; let it not be that (more polite than mäcamö)

• 1. Negative marker

  ah (prefix) or ahmo negative marker (separate word)("not").
  (Incompatible with optative/imperative marker, item 0.)

• 2. Antecessive Prefix
  (Showing action is or will be finished by the time of speech or the time of the main verb. Compulsory with preterit.)

  ö (already)

  
• 3. Subject pronoun

  1 ni / ti (or xi) (I / we)
  2 ti (or xi) / am (or an) (or xi) (use xi in optative/imperative)
  3 — / — (he / she / it / they)

• 4. Object prefix
  (Specific Benefactive, IO, or DO) (incompatible with 7, below). (See "How to Choose" box after item 12.)

  1. nëch / tëch (me / us)
  2 mitz / amëch (you)
  3 c/qui* / quim (him/her/it/them)
  *-Use c before or after a vowel, qui elsewhere.
  (quim >> im as extra DO pronoun if pressed)

• 5. Directional marker (for space or time)

  on (thither)
  huäl (hither)

• 6. Reflexive pronoun

  1 no / to (myself / ourselves)
  2 & 3 mo (yourself / yourselves / himself / themselves))
  remnant ne (used when reflexive verb is used nonreflexively)

• 7. Non-specific Benefactive, IO, or DO pronoun (incompatible with 5, above).
  <(See "How to Choose" box after item 12.)

  (This is a dummy object for use with transitive verbs without a stated object..)
  të (for humans)
  tla (for non-humans)
  (Note that tla in this position can also serve as a depersonalizing mock subject for use when the real subject is a place name and hence inherently locative.)

• 8. Verb in Appropriate Stem Form
  (See below for way to figure out what verb is in which class.)
• 9. Tense & number suffix (See table below.)
• 10. Causative ending (added only to intransitive verbs) (Caution: many irregularities in this formation!)

  tia/ltia ("to cause [somebody] to verb")

• 11. Passive/inactive ending

  lo or hua or o or ohua or hualo

• 12. Applicative ending (to increase number of objects by one)

  (i)(l)ia (to, at, on, for, against [somebody])

How to Choose Object Pronoun

(Relevant to items 4 & 7 above.) The object pronoun prefix always agrees with the rightmost in the following sequence that is overtly expressed:

Direct Object < Indirect Object < Benefactive Object
("I give it < to you < for her.")

Verbs & Their Forms

Letters in paretheses are added only in the plural

Verb Table 3: Assigning a Verb to a Class*

*-This table has been remarkably robust. So far it has accurately predicted the verb class of every Nahuatl verb I have seen.

(Examples show production of preterit from present.)

1. Closed List of "Exceptions"

Four irregular verbs: cä/ye, huïtza, yä/huih, huällä/huälhuih (See previous table.)
päca (päc) = to wash (V2 not V1)
töna (tönac) = to be warm; to prosper (V1 not V2)
zöma (zömah) = to irritate (V4 not V2)

2. Verbs in -hua and -ya

-hua (Vi) >> 1
ëhua >> ëhuac = he departed
-hua (Vtr) >> 2
ëhua >> mëuh = he arose (raised himself)
-ya (Vi) >> 1 or 2 as you like

3. Selected Monosyllables

Monosyllables in #Ca# >> V4
Monosyllables in i# >> V1 (and i >> ï)
i >> quïc = he drank it

4. Verbs in -o, -tla, and -ca

Co >> V1 (and o >> ö)
pano >> panöqueh = they passed
temo >> temöc = he descended
-tla >> V1
mötla >> quimötlac = he threw stones at him
-ca >> V1
chöca >> chöcaqueh = they wept
tëca >> motëcac = he lay down

5. Other Verbs

CCV >> V1
itta >> quittaqueh = they saw it
ahci >> ahcic = he arrived

VCV >> V2
quïza >> niquïz = I sent out
miqui >> mic = she died; miqueh = they died
tzacua >> niquitzauc = I covered it
nëci >> nëzqueh = they appeared
xima >> ninoxin = I shaved myself
chiya = nitlachix = I looked
mati = quimah = he knew it

VV >> V3
ihtoa >> ihtoh = he spoke, quihtohqueh = they said it

Verb Table 4: "Passive" Endings*

*-I find passives confusing and unpredictable. This table is helpful, but I do not guarantee that it accounts for all cases.

Class 1 & 2 Verbs

-o, -ö, ï-:hua
transitive in -i, -a-lö
intransitive in -i-ïhua, -ohua
intransitive in a-ohua

Class 3 Verbs -:lö

Class 4 Verbs -lö

Irregular verbs:

cah >> yelohuayä >> huïlohua

Note that applying the passive endings always produces a Class-l verb, with past in -c/-queh and future in -z.

Root Consonant Mutations With the Suffix -:hua

cV# >> cöhua
mV# >> möhua
huV# >> öhua
VsV# >> Vxöhua
VtzV# >> Vchöhua
CsV# >> Cxïhua
CtzV# >> Ctzïhua

Usage examples:

The passive, better called "non-active" or "middle-voice," cannot show an agent. When applied to an intransitive verb, it shows a general condition.

Causatives & Applicatives

General Form: Vb + tia = to make sb Vb [st]

Example: quiza = exit (Vi)
quix-tia (causative)= remove, kick ou (cause to exit) (Vt)
quix-ti-lia (applicative of causative) = remove (something) from (somebody) (Vtt)

How to Form a Causative: -tia -ltia

Causatives From Intransitive Verbs:

-ti# (verb derived from noun) >> -lia
-i# >> ïtia
Vqui# & Vca# >> Vctia
:huV# >> :uhtia
:mV# >> :mtia
:nV# >> :nVtia
zV# >> xtia
tV# >> chtia

Causatives From Transitive Verbs:

Passive formed in -lo# >> -ltia
Passive formed in -o# or -hua# >> tia

Causatives From All Verbs (optional variant)

-a# >> -altia (less common than above)

Causatives From Irregular Verbs:

cah >> ?
yäuh >> huïca (Vt1) = conduct, lead

Causatives from Non-Verbs

N+ti(y)a = to provide somebody with N
Adj+tia = to render something Adj

How to Form a Semi-Causative

(Converts Vi to Vt. Not a productive device? but many pairs of verbs conform to this.)

-a# >> -ia#
-i# >> -a#-ki# >> -tza#
-i# >> -ia#-ti# >> -tla#

-ca >> quia (or quilia)
-hua >> huia (or huilia)
-iya# >> -iyalia
-sV# >> xlia
-tlV# >> tilia or chtlia
-tV# >> chlia
-tzV# >> chilia

#Ca# >> #Cälia
-Ca# >> -Cilia

Auxiliary & Intentional Verb Suffixes

Table of Auxiliary Suffixes

Ten verbs (in their preterit stems) are frequently used as suffixes to other verbs to lend more complex nuances. their English translation formula is normally awkward, and often best omitted, but it is important to recognize the forms.

Table of Intentional Suffixes

"Coming & Going in order to Vb" Use present stem (Base 1)

Consonant Mutations

Vh always produces a short vowel.

All final vowels become short.

Summary Table of Nahuatl Numbers

1997 = (näuh-tzontli) + (caxtölli-on-näuh-pöhualli) + (caxtölli-on-öme)
(4 four-hundreds) + (15 + 4 twenties) + (15 + 2 ones)

2006 = mäcuïlli-tzontli chicua-cë (6)
(5 four-hundreds) + (5+1 ones)

Reference Table of Most Affixes

• ah- = negative verb prefix
• ahmo- = negative verb prefix
• am- = 2nd person plural possessive & subject prefix
• amëch- = 2nd person plural object prefix
• amo- = 2nd person plural possessive prefix
• an- 2nd person plural subject prefix
• c- = 3rd person singular object prefix
• huäl- = directional prefix ("hither")
• ï- = 3rd person singular possessive prefix
• ïm- = 3rd person plural possessive prefix
• ïn- = 3rd person plural possessive prefix
• m- = 2nd & 3rd person singular & plural reflexive prefix
• m- = 2nd person singular possessive prefix
• mä- = optative verb marker (= if), normally written as separate word
• mäca = negative optative verb marker ("if not"), normally written as separate word
• mäcamo- = negative optative verb marker ("if not"), normally written as separate word
• mitz- = 2nd person singular object prefix
• mo- = 2nd & 3rd person singular & plural reflexive prefix
• mo- = 2nd person singular possessive prefix
• n- = 1st person singular possessive, reflexive, and subject prefix
• na- = reciprocally
• ne- = dummy possessive prefix on nouns derives from reflexives
• nëch- = 1st person singular object prefix
• ni- = 1st person singular subject prefix
• no- = 1st person singular possessive & reflexive prefix
• ö- = preterit prefix
• on- = directional prefix ("thither")
• qui- = 3rd person singular object prefix
• quim- = 3rd person plural object prefix
• quin- = 3rd person plural object prefix
• Rh- (reduplication of initial syllable plus -h) = prefix stressing repetitive action
• t- = 1st person plural possessive, reflexive, and subject prefix
• t- = 2nd person singular subject prefix
• të- = non-specific human possessive prefix
• tëch- = 1st person plural object prefix
• ti- = 1st person plural subject prefix
• ti- = 2nd person singular subject prefix
• tla- = non-human object prefix
• tlä- = optative verb marker ("if"), normally written as separate word
• tläca- = negative optative verb marker ("if not"), normally written as separate word
• tläcamo- = negative optative verb marker ("if not"), normally written as separate word
• to- = 1st person plural possessive & reflexive prefix
• - = 3rd person singular & plural subject prefix (null prefix)

• -a = non-productive transitivizing suffix for verbs ending in -i#
• -ahui = non-productive transitivizing suffix
• -altia = alternative causative suffix for any very ending in -a#
• -c = agentive suffix? used after V
• -c = in, at, among
• -c = interparticle ligature when the second particle is negative
• -c = preterit verb form (V1)
• -c(a) = interparticle ligature when the second particle is negative
• -ca = pluperfect verb form
• -ca = through, by, with, for
• -cän = optative plural marker
• -cän = in the place/time of
• -chöhua = form of impersonal ending -hua for verbs ending in VtzV# (The first vowel is retained before the ch.)
• -co = agentive suffix? used after C
• -co = "come"; singular present/past intentional suffix added to Base 1.
• -co/c = in, at, among
• -cöhua = form of impersonal ending -hua for verbs ending in cV#
• -coh = "come"; plural present/past intentional suffix added to Base 1.
• -eh (pl. -ehqueh) = possessor of (after C; see huah.)
• -h = "go"; singular optative intentional suffix added to Base 1.
• -h = plural suffix, especially for nouns ending in tl
• -h = present, quotidian, imperfect, & pluperfect verb form plural marker
• -h = admonitive verb form (V1) (lost in plural)
• -hua = passive suffix (added to Base 2 ending); see lö.
• -huän = in the company of, with
• -huän = possessed plural suffix
• -huah = possessor of (esp. after V; see -eh)
• -hualo = passive/inactive verb ending
• -hui = possessive singular suffix used after C
• -huïc = toward, against
• -ïcampa = behind
• -ïxpan = before, in the presence of
• -ia = non-productive transitivizing suffix for verbs ending in -a# or -i#
• -ia applicative formant (adds an object); see -lia. Also occurs as misspelling of -iya.
• -icpac = on top of, on someone's head, above
• -ihtic = inside, in the belly of
• -ihua = passive formant; see lö
• -ihui = non-productive transitivizing suffix
• -ilia = appicative verb ending (adds an object)
• -itic See -ihtic
• -ïxco = on the surface of
• -lan = next to, in the place of
• -lhuia See -lia
• -li = absolutive suffix for nouns ending in l
• -lia = causative suffix used with denominative verbs in -ti#
• -lia applicative (or -lhuia or -ia)
• Used to introduce additional oblique object, often benefactive.
• -liztli (1) entification, (2) abstraction
• -lö (-loh) = passive formant.
• -loh = covered with, characterized by; see -yoh
• -lotl = -ship, -ness; see yötl
• -ltia = causative suffix
• -ltia = See -tia.
• -män = locative suffix
• -meh = plural suffix, especially for nouns ending in tl
• -möhua = form of impersonal ending -hua for verbs ending in mV#
• -nähuac = next to, close to, near, within shouting distance of
• -ni = quotidian verb form singular (V1 V2)
• -nï = quotidian verb form singular (V3 V4)
• -o = passive/inactive suffix (added to Base 2 ending in C)
• -öhua = form of impersonal ending -hua for verbs ending in huV#; also occurs as misspelling of -oa.
• -oa = non-productive transitivizing suffix; also occurs as misspelling of -ohua.
• -oh = covered with, characterized by; see -yoh
• -ohua = passive/inactive suffix; see lö
• -otl See -yotl
• -pa = (1) times (with number); (2) moment relative to point in time
• -pal = for, by means of, for the sake of
• -pampa = account of, for, reason for, through, because of
• -pan = in, on for, above, in the time of, in the presence of
• -queh = future verb form plural marker
• -queh = plural suffix, especially for preterit agentives
• -queh = preterit verb form plural marker
• -qui = agentive suffix used after C
• -qui = "come"; singular optative intentional suffix added to Base 1.
• -quih = "come"; plural optative intentional suffix added to Base 1.
• -quihuih = "come"; plural future intentional suffix added to Base 1.
• -quiuh = "come"; singular future intentional suffix added to Base 1.
• -tëhua = to depart Vb-ing (Auxiliary added to Base 2, from ëhua "rise, depart.")
• -tëhuac = departed Vb-ing (Auxiliary added to Base 2, from ëhua "rise, depart.")
• -tëhuaz = will depart Vb-ing (Auxiliary added to Base 2, from ëhua "rise, depart.")
• -tech = joined to, upon, as far as, concerning, beside, next to (general connector in verbal idioms)
• -ti = "go"; singular optative intentional suffix added to Base 1.
• -tia = was Vb-ing (ti+yah) (Auxiliary added to Base 2, from yuah "go.")
• -tia = causative suffix (or -ltia)
• N+ti(y)a = to provide sb with N
• Adj+tia = to render st Adj
• Vb + tia = to make sb Vb [st]
• -tiaz = will be Vb-ing (ti+yaz) (Auxiliary added to Base 2, from yuah "go.")
• -tic = adjective suffix
• -tica = ca = on account of (a person), by means of (a thing), at the place/time of, during.
• -ticaca = stood Vb-ing (Auxiliary added to Base 2, from ihcac "stand.")
• -ticah = to be Vb-ing (Auxiliary added to Base 2, from cah "be.")
• -ticatca = was Vb-ing (Auxiliary added to Base 2, from cah "be.")
• -ticaya = stood Vb-ing (Auxiliary added to Base 2, from ihcac "stand.")
• -ticaz = will stand Vb-ing (Auxiliary added to Base 2, from ihcac "stand.")
• -tiez = will be Vb-ing (Auxiliary added to Base 2, from cah "be.")
• -tih = "go"; plural optative intentional suffix added to Base 1.
• -tih = admonitive verb form plural marker
• -tihcac = to stand Vb-ing (Auxiliary added to Base 2, from ihcac "stand.")
• -tihuetz = Vb-ed quickly (Auxiliary added to Base 2, from huetzi "fall.")
• -tihuetzi = to Vb quickly (Auxiliary added to Base 2, from huetzi "fall.")
• -tihuetziz = will Vb quickly (Auxiliary added to Base 2, from huetzi "fall.")
• -tïhuih = "go"; plural present & future intentional suffix added to Base 1.
• -tihuïtz = to come Vb-ing (Auxiliary added to Base 2, from huïtz "come.")
• -tihuïtza = came Vb-ing (Auxiliary added to Base 2, from huïtz "come.")
• -timan = was Vb-ing (Auxiliary added to Base 2, from mani "be spread out.")
• -timanca = was Vb-ing (Auxiliary added to Base 2, from mani "be spread out.")
• -timani = to be Vb-ing (Auxiliary added to Base 2, from mani "be spread out.")
• -timaniz = will be Vb-ing (Auxiliary added to Base 2, from mani "be spread out.")
• -tin = "go"; plural optative intentional suffix added to Base 1.
• -tin = plural suffix, especially for nouns ending in tli or glottal stop
• -tin = admonitive verb form plural marker
• -tinemi = to go about Vb-ing (Auxiliary added to Base 2, from nemi "live.")
• -tinemiz = will go about Vb-ing (Auxiliary added to Base 2, from nemi "live.")
• -tinen = went about Vb-ing (Auxiliary added to Base 2, from nemi "live.")
• -tinenca = went about Vb-ing (Auxiliary added to Base 2, from nemi "live.")
• -tiquïz = passed Vb-ing (Auxiliary added to Base 2, from quïza "emerge, pass.")
• -tiquïza = to pass Vb-ing (Auxiliary added to Base 2, from quïza "emerge, pass.")
• -tiquïzaz = will pass Vb-ing (Auxiliary added to Base 2, from quïza "emerge, pass.")
• -tiuh = to be Vb-ing (ti+yauh) (Auxiliary added to Base 2, from yuah "go.")
• -tïuh = "go"; singular present & future intentional suffix added to Base 1.
• -tl = common absolutive suffix used for stems ending in V
• -tla = non-productive transitivizing suffix for verbs ending in -gi#
• -tlah = place of, place abundant in N.
• -tlan = next to, under, between, under
• -tli = absolutive suffix for nouns ending in C
• -to = "go"; singular past intentional suffix added to Base 1.
• -toc = to lie Vb-ing (Auxiliary added to Base 2, from on > oc "lie.")
• -toca = lay Vb-ing (Auxiliary added to Base 2, from on > oc "lie.")
• -toh = "go"; plural past intentional suffix added to Base 1.
• -toz = will lie Vb-ing (Auxiliary added to Base 2, from on > oc "lie.")
• -tza = non-productive transitivizing suffix for verbs ending in -ki#
• -tzälan = between, amidst, in the middle of
• -tzé = vocative form of -tzintli
• -tzïhua = form of impersonal ending -hua for verbs ending in CtzV# (The C is retained before the tz.)
• -tzintlan = below
• -tzintli = augmentative and dim. suffix in absolutive form.
• -uh = possessive singular suffix used after V (except where V is left by dropping -atl or -itl from absolutive).
• -xïhua = form of impersonal ending -hua for verbs ending in CsV# (The C is retained before the x.)
• -xöhua = form of impersonal ending -hua for verbs ending in VsV# (The first vowel is retained before the x.)
• -yötl (after z: -zötl, after l: -lötl) = -ship, -ness
• -yoh (-oh) = covered with, characterized by
• -z = future verb form (V1 V2) (lengthens prior vowel in V3 & V4)
• -zquiya (-h) = conditional verb form.
• : (lengthening of preceding vowel) = optative verb form (V3 V4)
• - = optative verb form (V1 V2) (null suffix)
• - = possessive suffix used after V or C (alternative) (null suffix)
• - = present verb form singular (null suffix)
• - = preterit & admonitive verb form (V2 V3 V4) (null suffix)

The morning-after owl is from the Bologna Codex.