Supplement.

Cross-Sectional Investigations of Effects of Democracy

on the Provision of Various Public Goods

 

 

 

TABLE 1. Cross-Sectional OLS Analysis of Effects

of Democracy on Adult Illiteracy Ratesa

 

Independent

Variables

 

Coef. (Std. Err.)

(1990)

 

Coef. (Std. Err.)

(1985)

 

OECD

 

.820 (6.11)

 

-7.47 (4.90)

Per Capita GNP ($100)

-.107 (.068)

.089 (.110)

Land Area (100,000 km)

1.431 (1.385)

.1.32 (1.49)

Population (1,000,000)

-.190 (.221)

-.185 (.240)

% Urban Population

-49.3 (-11.4)***

-58.2 (12.5)***

Democracy

-1.25 (.337)***

-1.14 (.326)***

Constant

58.4 (6.08)***

60.7 (6.10)***

R2

.55 (N=72)

.49 (N=80)

 

*p<.05; **p<.01; ***p<.001

aAll models employ White’s heteroscedasticity-consistent "robust" standard errors.


TABLE 2. Cross-Sectional OLS Analysis of Effects of

Democracy on % Persistence to Fourth Gradea

 

Independent

Variables

 

Coef. (Std. Err.)

(1992)

 

Coef. (Std. Err.)

(1985)

 

OECD

 

-5.00 (4.37)

 

-1.67 (4.90)

Per Capita GNP ($100)

.034 (.028)

.143 (.062)*

Land Area (100,000 km)

.319 (.496)

-1.83 (1.01)

Population (1,000,000)

.058 (.044)

.109 (.088)

% Urban Population

10.5 (6.08)

7.79 (8.33)

Democracy (-3 years)

.478 (.171)**

_____

Democracy (-4 years)

_____

.499 (.232)*

Constant

83.6 (3.10)***

80.5 (3.64)***

R2

.37 (N=37)

.32 (N=68)

 

*p<.05; **p<.01; ***p<.001

aAll models employ White’s heteroscedasticity-consistent "robust" standard errors.

 


TABLE 3. Cross-Sectional OLS Analysis of Effects of Democracy on

Primary Pupil-Teacher Ratioa

 

Independent

Variables

 

Coef. (Std. Err.)

(1990)

 

Coef. (Std. Err.)

(1985)

 

Coef. (Std. Err.)

(1975)

 

OECD

 

2.34 (3.98)

 

-1.73 (3.26)

 

5.24 (2.72)

Per Capita GNP ($100)

-.067 (.030)*

-.112 (.048)*

-.533 (.096)***

Land Area (100,000 km)

.157 (.388)

.051 (.529)

-.411 (.582)

Population (1,000,000)

-.188 (.052)***

-.013 (.165)

.092 (.095)

% Urban Population

-22.0 (8.30)**

-18.9 (6.96)**

-11.2 (5.85)

Democracy

-.616 (.221)**

-.362 (.205)

-.610 (.166)***

Constant

44.4 (3.88)***

43.2 (3.69)***

40.9 (2.72)***

R2

.57 (N=73)

.43 (N=84)

.48 (N=86)

 

*p<.05; **p<.01; ***p<.001

aAll models employ White’s heteroscedasticity-consistent "robust" standard errors.

 


TABLE 4. Cross-Sectional OLS Analysis of Effects of Democracy on

Primary Gross Enrollment Ratioa

 

Independent

Variables

 

Coef. (Std. Err.)

(1990)

 

Coef. (Std. Err.)

(1985)

 

Coef. (Std. Err.)

(1970)

 

OECD

 

-.647 (7.57)

 

-2.86 (5.78)

 

13.89 (7.85)

Per Capita GNP ($100)

-.022 (.047)

-.136 (.068)*

-4.86 (1.54)**

Land Area (100,000 km)

-.508 (.570)

-.383 (.585)

.163 (.955)

Population (1,000,000)

.339 (.130)**

.336 (.154)*

.053 (.182)

% Urban Population

38.3 (10.2)***

46.1 (10.2)***

90.6 (13.1)***

Democracy (-1 year)

.647 (.342)

.705 (.304)*

.916 (.402)*

Constant

71.7 (6.18)***

73.7 (6.25)***

48.9 (5.88)***

R2

.31 (N=92)

.30 (N=93)

.53 (N=89)

 

*p<.05; **p<.01; ***p<.001

aAll models employ White’s heteroscedasticity-consistent "robust" standard errors.

 

 


TABLE 5. Cross-Sectional OLS Analysis of Effects of Democracy on

Secondary Gross School Enrollment Ratioa

 

Independent

Variables

 

Coef. (Std. Err.)

(1990)

 

Coef. (Std. Err.)

(1987)

 

Coef. (Std. Err.)

(1975)

 

OECD

 

3.37 (8.50)

 

14.2 (7.09)*

 

24.1 (5.80)***

Per Capita GNP ($100)

.140 (.064)*

.092 (.073)

.019 (.192)

Land Area (100,000 km)

-1.40 (1.35)

-1.10 (.953)

-.359 (.681)

Population (1,000,000)

.217 (.125)

.221 (.097)*

.058 (.091)

% Urban Population

46.9 (10.8)***

66.5 (9.19)***

56.0 (6.06)***

Democracy

1.17 (.272)***

_____

_____

Democracy (-4 years)

_____

_____

.746 (.242)**

Democracy (-6 years)

_____

.597 (.302)*

_____

Constant

20.5 (4.83)***

12.0 (3.95)**

7.61 (2.76)**

R2

.71 (N=80)

.76 (N=95)

.85 (N=92)

 

*p<.05; **p<.01; ***p<.001

aAll models employ White’s heteroscedasticity-consistent "robust" standard errors.

 

 


TABLE 6. Cross-Sectional OLS Analysis of Effects of

Democracy on Tertiary Gross School Enrollment Ratioa

 

Independent

Variables

 

Coef. (Std. Err.)

(1990)

 

Coef. (Std. Err.)

(1987)

 

OECD

 

8.64 (4.57)

 

4.59 (4.07)

Per Capita GNP ($100)

.046 (.029)

.026 (.040)

Land Area (100,000 km)

2.77 (1.73)

1.36 (1.05)

Population (1,000,000)

-.224 (.152)

-.086 (.070)

% Urban Population

19.7 (5.35)***

26.8 (5.25)***

Democracy

.488 (.173)**

.406 (.157)**

Constant

.088 (2.14)

-1.32 (1.99)

R2

.73 (N=78)

.69 (N=92)

 

*p<.05; **p<.01; ***p<.001

aAll models employ White’s heteroscedasticity-consistent "robust" standard errors.

 

 


TABLE 7. Cross-Sectional OLS Analysis

of Effects of Democracy on % of

Population with Access to Health Carea

 

Independent

Variables

 

Coef. (Std. Err.)

(1985)

 

OECD

 

-12.5 (7.13)

Per Capita GNP ($100)

.181 (.124)

Land Area (100,000 km)

-1.47 (1.25)

Population (1,000,000)

-.015 (.098)

% Urban Population

37.9 (11.5)**

Democracy (-2 years)

1.26 (.327)***

Constant

61.4 (5.08)***

R2

.60 (N=55)

 

*p<.05; **p<.01; ***p<.001

aAll models employ White’s heteroscedasticity-consistent "robust" standard errors.

 

 


TABLE 8. Cross-Sectional OLS Analysis of Effects of

Democracy on % of Total Population with Access to

Safe Watera

 

Independent

Variables

 

Coef. (Std. Err.)

(1985)

 

Coef. (Std. Err.)

(1975)

 

OECD

 

.786 (6.17)

 

6.42 (3.08)*

Per Capita GNP ($100)

.193 (.049)***

1.11 (.514)*

Land Area (100,000 km)

-1.39 (.595)*

-3.46 (2.71)

Population (1,000,000)

.014 (.073)

-.153 (.176)

% Urban Population

60.2 (9.51)***

66.7 (10.2)***

Democracy (-5 years)

_____

1.05 (.364)**

Democracy (-7 years)

1.12 (.323)***

_____

Constant

36.9 (4.63)***

22.0 (4.62)***

R2

.71 (N=76)

.72 (N=52)

 

*p<.05; **p<.01; ***p<.001

aAll models employ White’s heteroscedasticity-consistent "robust" standard errors.

 


 

TABLE 9. Cross-Sectional OLS Analysis of Effects of

Democracy on % of Rural Population with Access to

Safe Watera

 

Independent

Variables

 

Coef. (Std. Err.)

(1985)

 

Coef. (Std. Err.)

(1975)

 

OECD

 

9.25 (7.55)**

 

4.52 (12.1)

Per Capita GNP ($100)

.493 (.084)***

3.08 (.722)***

Land Area (100,000 km)

-2.26 (.997)*

-1.49 (4.07)

Population (1,000,000)

.074 (.105)

-.257 (.218)

% Urban Population

18.7 (13.1)

1.90 (17.6)

Democracy (-5 years)

_____

1.30 (.432)**

Democracy (-7 years)

1.32 (.432)**

_____

Constant

38.4 (5.86)***

21.2 (5.75)***

R2

.65 (N=79)

.54 (N=48)

 

*p<.05; **p<.01; ***p<.001

aAll models employ White’s heteroscedasticity-consistent "robust" standard errors.

 

 


 

TABLE 10. Cross-Sectional OLS Analysis of Effects of

Democracy on % of Urban Population with Access to

Safe Watera

 

Independent

Variables

 

Coef. (Std. Err.)

(1985)

 

Coef. (Std. Err.)

(1975)

 

OECD

 

-7.05 (5.21)

 

-.680 (5.16)

Per Capita GNP ($100)

.161 (.069)*

.1.04 (.463)*

Land Area (100,000 km)

-1.10 (.579)

-.185 (2.15)

Population (1,000,000)

-.121 (.119)

-.185 (.214)

% Urban Population

33.4 (10.7) **

14.8 (15.3)

Democracy (-4 years)

_____

1.05 (.530)*

Democracy (-7 years)

1.10 (.301)***

_____

Constant

66.9 (5.53)***

73.5 (6.78)***

R2

.41 (N=82)

.24 (N=52)

 

*p<.05; **p<.01; ***p<.001

aAll models employ White’s heteroscedasticity-consistent "robust" standard errors.

 

 


 

TABLE 11. Cross-Sectional OLS Analysis of Effects of

Democracy on Population per Physiciana

 

Independent

Variables

 

Coef. (Std. Err.)

(1985)

 

Coef. (Std. Err.)

(1975)

 

OECD

 

5475 (6059)

 

-3402 (3495)

Per Capita GNP ($100)

-34.5 (82.2)

2288 (1702)

Land Area (100,000 km)

834.2 (821.8)

622.4 (805.1)

Population (1,000,000)

-206.2 (89.5)*

-154.2 (89.3)

% Urban Population

-23431 (7546)**

-66725 (23074)**

Democracy

_____

-645.6 (307.9)*

Democracy (-7 years)

-340.6 (203.8)

_____

Constant

16629 (3398)***

29021 (5280)***

R2

.39 (N=43)

.47 (N=60)

 

*p<.05; **p<.01; ***p<.001

aAll models employ White’s heteroscedasticity-consistent "robust" standard errors.

 


 

TABLE 12. Cross-Sectional OLS Analysis

of Effects of Democracy on % of Births

Attended by Health Personnela

 

Independent

Variables

 

Coef. (Std. Err.)

(1985)

 

OECD

 

-7.91 (6.24)

Per Capita GNP ($100)

.278 (.075)***

Land Area (100,000 km)

-.583 (.589)

Population (1,000,000)

-.352 (.084)***

% Urban Population

49.0 (12.8)***

Democracy (-7 years)

1.36 (.385)***

Constant

38.5 (6.35)***

R2

.60 (N=67)

 

*p<.05; **p<.01; ***p<.001

aAll models employ White’s heteroscedasticity-consistent "robust" standard errors.

 


 

 

TABLE 13. Cross-Sectional OLS Analysis of Effects of

Democracy on % Under Age 1 Immunized Against DPTa

 

Independent

Variables

 

Coef. (Std. Err.)

(1992)

 

Coef. (Std. Err.)

(1985)

 

OECD

 

-8.40 (6.76)

 

-22.7 (10.1)*

Per Capita GNP ($100)

.087 (.032)**

.049 (.126)

Land Area (100,000 km)

-.505 (.481)

3.84 (4.75)

Population (1,000,000)

.310 (.089)***

-.172 (.360)

% Urban Population

21.4 (10.8)*

52.3 (17.3)**

Democracy (-1 years)

.260 (.374)

1.66 (.435)***

Constant

60.6 (6.32)***

37.1 (6.30)***

R2

.26 (N=81)

.36 (N=57)

 

*p<.05; **p<.01; ***p<.001

aAll models employ White’s heteroscedasticity-consistent "robust" standard errors.

 

 

TABLE 14. Cross-Sectional OLS Analysis of Effects of

Democracy on % Under Age 1 Immunized Against Measlesa

 

Independent

Variables

 

Coef. (Std. Err.)

(1992)

 

Coef. (Std. Err.)

(1985)

 

OECD

 

-2.26 (7.20)

 

-4.09 (12.4)

Per Capita GNP ($100)

.026 (.037)

.016 (.143)

Land Area (100,000 km)

-.044 (.647)

-.952 (1.41)

Population (1,000,000)

.260 (.087)**

.240 (.206)

% Urban Population

38.7 (13.2)**

40.4 (17.5)*

Democracy (-1 years)

-.206 (.413)

.587 (.610)

Constant

51.3 (7.34)***

36.9 (7.14)***

R2

.25 (N=82)

.23 (N=59)

 

*p<.05; **p<.01; ***p<.001

aAll models employ White’s heteroscedasticity-consistent "robust" standard errors.

 

 


TABLE 15. Cross-Sectional OLS Analysis of Effects of Democracy

on Crude Death Rate (per 1000 Population)a

 

Independent

Variables

 

Coef. (Std. Err.)

(1992)

 

Coef. (Std. Err.)

(1987)

 

Coef. (Std. Err.)

(1970)

 

OECD

 

5.06 (1.51)***

 

5.05 (1.56)**

 

.330 (1.92)

Per Capita GNP ($100)

-.006 (.008)

-.019 (.016)

.285 (.300)

Land Area (100,000 km)

-.090 (.132)

.056 (.140)

-.001 (.196)

Population (1,000,000)

-.032 (.019)

-.059 (.027)*

-.016 (.038)

% Urban Population

-8.70 (2.29)***

-10.6 (2.14)***

-17.5 (2.09)***

Democracy

_____

-.180 (.063)**

_____

Democracy (-1 years)

_____

_____

-.175 (.089)*

Democracy (-3 years)

-.219 (.069)**

_____

_____

Constant

14.5 (1.21)***

15.8 (1.14)***

21.1 (1.10)***

R2

.38 (N=106)

.42 (N=110)

.58 (N=97)

 

*p<.05; **p<.01; ***p<.001

aAll models employ White’s heteroscedasticity-consistent "robust" standard errors.

 

 


TABLE 16. Cross-Sectional OLS Analysis of Effects of Democracy

on Infant Mortality Rate (per 1000 Live Births)a

 

Independent

Variables

 

Coef. (Std. Err.)

(1992)

 

Coef. (Std. Err.)

(1987)

 

Coef. (Std. Err.)

(1970)

 

OECD

 

9.82 (11.0)

 

3.61 (11.3)

 

-20.7 (15.5)

Per Capita GNP ($100)

-.131 (.057)*

-.230 (.104)*

-2.49 (2.32)

Land Area (100,000 km)

1.14 (1.24)

2.50 (1.23)*

2.49 (1.17)*

Population (1,000,000)

-.316 (.294)

-.455 (.333)

.137 (.297)

% Urban Population

-73.7 (16.1)***

-91.5 (15.9)***

-113.2 (14.7)***

Democracy (-1 years)

_____

-1.57 (.497)**

-1.50 (.582)**

Democracy (-2 years)

-1.98 (.520)***

_____

_____

Constant

98.3 (8.81)***

110.5 (8.48)***

146.4 (7.84)***

R2

.64 (N=104)

.64 (N=109)

.74 (N=97)

 

*p<.05; **p<.01; ***p<.001

aAll models employ White’s heteroscedasticity-consistent "robust" standard errors.

 

 


TABLE 17. Cross-Sectional OLS Analysis of Effects of Democracy

on Life Expectancy at Birth (Total Population)a

 

Independent

Variables

 

Coef. (Std. Err.)

(1992)

 

Coef. (Std. Err.)

(1987)

 

Coef. (Std. Err.)

(1970)

 

OECD

 

-1.05 (2.50)

 

.181 (2.45)

 

6.71 (2.67)*

Per Capita GNP ($100)

.030 (.014)*

.051 (.023)*

.034 (.341)

Land Area (100,000 km)

-.194 (.249)

-.539 (.254)*

-.374 (.256)

Population (1,000,000)

.093 (.057)

.128 (.066)

-.002 (.046)

% Urban Population

18.6 (3.96)***

22.8 (3.48)***

27.6 (2.74)***

Democracy

_____

.364 (.111)***

_____

Democracy (-1 years)

_____

_____

.276 (.122)*

Democracy (-2 years)

.523 (.126)***

_____

_____

Constant

52.5 (2.10)***

50.2 (1.90)***

43.9 (1.47)***

R2

.71 (N=104)

.70 (N=110)

.79 (N=97)

 

*p<.05; **p<.01; ***p<.001

aAll models employ White’s heteroscedasticity-consistent "robust" standard errors.